WASHINGTON, September 23 — The story begins with a warning, and it comes from a man who once ran America’s space agency. Jim Bridenstine, who led NASA from 2018 to 2021, has raised concerns that China’s lunar exploration program — particularly its planned missions to the Moon’s south pole — could be a precursor to territorial claims on the lunar surface. Bridenstine warned that China might seek to occupy areas rich in water ice and other resources, potentially excluding other nations.
He called for the United States to accelerate its own lunar efforts, including the Artemis program, to maintain a leading role in space exploration.
A Record of Firsts
China’s lunar program has achieved significant milestones in recent years. In January 2019, the Chang’e-4 mission became the first to land on the far side of the Moon. In December 2020, Chang’e-5 returned samples from the lunar surface.
China has announced plans to build a lunar research station in collaboration with Russia, with construction expected to begin in the mid-2020s. The station, named the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS), is intended to be a base for scientific research and resource utilization.
The Treaty and Its Limits
At its heart, the dispute turns on a document signed more than half a century ago. The Outer Space Treaty of 1967, which both the United States and China have signed, prohibits national appropriation of celestial bodies. However, the treaty does not explicitly ban resource extraction or the establishment of exclusive zones.
That ambiguity has led to concerns that a nation could effectively claim territory by occupying it. The United States has its own lunar ambitions through the Artemis program, which aims to return humans to the Moon by 2024, though that timeline has slipped.
NASA’s Artemis Accords, a set of bilateral agreements, seek to establish norms for lunar exploration, but China and Russia have not joined. Bridenstine’s comments echo earlier warnings from other US officials, including former NASA Deputy Administrator Lori Garver and current NASA Administrator Bill Nelson, who have expressed concerns about China’s space ambitions. In 2021, Nelson told Congress that China’s space program is a “military space program” and that the United States is in a “space race” with China.
China has consistently stated that its space program is for peaceful purposes and that it opposes the weaponization of space.
Why the South Pole Matters
The lunar south pole is of particular interest because of the presence of water ice in permanently shadowed craters, which could be used for drinking water, oxygen, and rocket fuel. Both the United States and China are targeting this region for future missions. NASA’s Artemis III mission, planned for the mid-2020s, aims to land astronauts near the lunar south pole.
China has also announced plans to send taikonauts to the Moon by the 2030s. International law experts note that while the Outer Space Treaty prohibits territorial claims, it does not prevent the establishment of “safety zones” around lunar activities, as proposed in the Artemis Accords.
Critics argue that such zones could be used to monopolize resources. The debate over lunar governance is likely to intensify as more nations and private companies plan lunar missions. Bridenstine’s remarks come amid heightened US-China tensions in space.
In 2021, China’s Tiangong space station began construction, and in 2022, it was completed. The United States has expressed concerns about China’s anti-satellite weapons tests, including a 2007 test that created thousands of pieces of debris.
China has also accused the United States of militarizing space. The former NASA chief’s warning underscores the growing competition between the United States and China in space exploration, with the Moon as a key arena. As both nations ramp up their lunar programs, the international community will be watching closely to see how the Outer Space Treaty is interpreted and enforced.
